SAGE Journals Online
Advertisement
Sign In to gain access to subscriptions and/or personal tools.

 

Advanced Search

Journal Navigation

Journal Home

Subscriptions

Archive

Contact Us

Table of Contents

Advertisement

Sign In to gain access to subscriptions and/or personal tools.
Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Free Full Text (Free PDF) Free
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to Saved Citations
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Request Reprints
Right arrow Add to My Marked Citations
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Right arrow Citing Articles via Scopus
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Wright, S. L.
Right arrow Articles by Persad, C.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Wright, S. L.
Right arrow Articles by Persad, C.
Right arrowPubmed/NCBI databases
Medline Plus Health Information
*Alzheimer's Disease
*Dementia
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati   Add to Twitter  
What's this?

Distinguishing Between Depression and Dementia in Older Persons: Neuropsychological and Neuropathological Correlates

Sara L. Wright, PhD

Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan Medical Center, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, GRECC, Ann Arbor, sarawrig@med .umich.edu

Carol Persad, PhD

Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan Medical Center, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, GRECC, Ann Arbor

Dementia and depression are frequently comorbid among older adult patients. Depression is related to cognitive decrement and can even represent the first signs of a neurodegenerative process. It can be difficult to distinguish depressed patients exhibiting the first signs of dementia from those whose cognition will improve with treatment. In this article, studies from the neuropsychological literature are reviewed that aid in accurate diagnosis and prognosis. Furthermore, the relationship between depression and dementia is explored by examining potential neurobiological mechanisms that may potentiate both syndromes in the context of the ongoing debate on depression as a prodrome and/or a risk factor for dementia. This article is concluded with suggestions for clinicians when deciding who to refer for neuropsychological assessment and with ideas for further research that might promote a better understanding of the complex association between depression and dementia during old age. (J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2007;20:189-198)

Key Words: neuropsychology • age • depression • Alzheimer's disease • dementia • cognition

References

  • Kliegel M., Zimprich D. Predictors of cognitive complaints in older adults: a mixture regression approach. Eur J Ageing 2005;2:13-23.
  • Harwood DG, Barker WW, Ownby RL, et al. Depressive symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: an examination among community-dwelling Cuban American patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000;8:84-91.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Migliorelli R., Teson A., Sabe L., et al. Prevalence and correlates of dysthymia and major depression among patients with Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:37-44.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Wragg RE, Jeste DV Overview of depression and psychosis in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146:577-587.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Jorm AF Is depression a risk factor for dementia or cognitive decline? Gerontology 2000; 2000:219-227.
  • Wells CE Pseudodementia. Am J Psychiatry 1979;136: 895-900.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Boone KB, Lesser IM, Miller BL, et al. Cognitive functioning in older depressed outpatients: relationship of presence and severity of depression to neuropsychological test scores. Neuropsychology 1995; 9:390-398.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
  • Butters MA, Whyte EM, Nebes RD, et al. The nature and determinants of neuropsychological functioning in late-life depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004;61:587-595.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Christensen H., Griffiths K., MacKinnon A., Jacomb P. A quantitative review of cognitive deficits in depression and Alzheimer-type dementia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 1997;3:631-651.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Elderkin-Thompson V., Kumar A., Mintz J. Executive dysfunction and visuospatial ability among depressed elders in a community setting. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2003;19:597-611.[CrossRef]
  • Ganguli M., Du Y., Dodge HH, et al. Depressive symptoms and cognitive decline in late life. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63: 153-160.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Pàlsson S., Johansson B., Berg S., Skoog IA A population study on the influence of depression on neuropsychological functioning in 85-year-olds. Act Psychiatr Scand 2000;101:185-193.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • King DA, Caine ED, Conwell Y., Cox C. The neuropsychology of depression in the elderly: a comparative study of normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. J Neuropsychiatry 1990;3:163-168.
  • King DA, Cox C., Lyness JM, et al. Quantitative and qualitative differences in the verbal learning performance of elderly depressives and healthy controls. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 1998; 4:115-126.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Kindermann SS, Kalayam B., Brown GG, et al. Executive functions and P300 latency in elderly depressed patients and control subjects. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000;8:57-65.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • King DA, Cox C., Lyness JM, Caine ED Neuropsychological effects of depression and age in an elderly sample: a confirmatory study. Neuropsychology 1995;9:399-408.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
  • La Rue A., D'Elia LF, Clark EO, et al. Clinical tests of memory in dementia, depression, and healthy aging. J Psychol and Aging 1986;1:69-77.[CrossRef]
  • Lesser IM, Boone KB, Mehringer CM Cognition and white matter hyperintensities in older depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:1280-1287.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Nebes RD, Butters MA, Mulsant BH, et al. Decreased working memory and processing speed mediate cognitive impairment in geriatric depression. Psychol Med 2000;30:679-691.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Lockwood KA, Alexopoulos GS, Kakuma T, Van Gorp WG. Subtypes of cognitive impairment in depressed older adults. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000;8:201-208.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Berent S., Giordani B., Foster N., et al. Neuropsychological function and cerebral glucose utilization in isolated memory impairment and Alzheimer's disease. J Psychiatr Res 1999; 33:7-16.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Bäckman L., Jones S., Berger A-K., et al. Cognitive impairment in preclinical Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 2005;19:520-531.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Crowe SF, Hoogenraad K. Differentiation of dementia of the Alzheimer's type from depression with cognitive impairment on the basis of a cortical versus subcortical pattern of cognitive deficit. Arch of Clin Neuropsychol 1999;15:9-19.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Dannenbaum SE, Parkinson SR, Inman VW Short-term forgetting: comparisons between patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type, depressed, and normal elderly. Cog Neuropsychol 1988;5:213-233.[CrossRef]
  • Gray JW, Rattan AI, Dean RS Differential diagnosis of dementia and depression in the elderly using neuropsychological methods. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 1986;1:341-349.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Bazin N., Lagny sur M, de Bonis M, Féline A. The dissociation of explicit and implicit memory in depressed patients. Psychol Med 1994;24:239-245.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Roy-Byrne PP, Weingartner H., Bierer L., et al. Effortful and automatic cognitive processes in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986;43:265-267.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Weingartner H., Cohen RJ, Murphy DL, et al. Cognitive processes in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1981;38:42-47.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Hart RP, Kwentus JA, Harner RM, Taylor JR Selective reminding procedure in depression and dementia. Psychol Aging 1987;2:111-115.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Pàlsson S. Johansson B, Berg S., Skoog IA A population study on the influence of depression on neuropsychological functioning in 85-year-olds. Act Psychiatr Scand 2000;101:185-193.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Testa JA, Ivnik RJ, Boeve B., et al. Confrontation naming does not add incremental diagnostic utility in MCI and Alzheimer's disease. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2004;10:504-512.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Rapp MA, Dahlman K., Sano M., et al. Neuropsychological differences between late-onset and recurrent geriatric major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:691-698.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Miller E., Lewis, P. Recognition memory in elderly patients with depression and dementia: a signal detection analysis. J Abnorm Psychol 1977;86:84-86.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Whitehead A. Verbal learning and memory in elderly depressives. Br J Psychiatry 1973;123:203-208.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Hudson AE, Todman RW, Schacter DL Gist memory in Alzheimer's disease: evidence from categorized pictures. Neuropsychology 2006;20:566-577.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Jones RD, Tranel D., Benton A., Paulsen J. Differentiating dementia from "pseudodementia" early in the clinical course: utility of neuropsychological tests. Neuropsychology 1992;6:13-21.[CrossRef]
  • Bassuk SS, Berkman, LF, Wypij D. Depressive symptomatology and incident cognitive decline in an elderly community sample. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:1073-1081.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Chen P., Ganguli M., Mulstan, BH, DeKosky ST The temporal relationship between depressive symptoms and dementia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:261-266.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Devanand DP, Gertrude H., Sano M., et al. Depressed mood in the incidence of Alzheimer's disease in the elderly living in the community. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:175-182.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Speck CE, Kukull WA, Brenner DE, et al. History of depression as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Epidemiology 1995;6:366-369.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Alexopoulos GS, Meyers BS, Young RC, et al. The course of geriatric depression with "reversible dementia": a controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1693-1699.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Jean L., Simard M., van Reekum R., Clarke DE Differential cognitive impairment in subjects with geriatric depression who will develop Alzheimer's disease and other dementias: a retrospective study. Int Psychogeriatr 2005;17:289-301.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • von Gunten A., Giannakopoulos P., Duc R. Cognitive and demographic determinants of dementia in depressed patients with subjective memory complaints. Eur Neurol 2005;54: 154-158.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Petersen RC, Smith GE, Waring SC, et al. Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome. Arch Neurol 1999;56:303-308.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Petersen RC, Doody R., Kurz A., et al. Current concepts in mild cognitive impairment. Arch Neurol 2001;58:1985-1992.[CrossRef]
  • Busse A., Hensel A., Gühne U., et al. Mild cognitive impairment: long-term course of four clinical subtypes. Neurology 2006;67: 2176-2185.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Geda I., Knopman D., Rocca W., et al. Depression is associated with incident mild cognitive impairment (MCI): a prospective cohort study. Int Psychogeriatr 2005;17:170.
  • Kumar R., Jorm AF, Parslow, R., Sachdev P. Depression in mild cognitive impairment in a community sample of individuals 60-64 years old. Int Psychogeriatr 2006;18:471-480.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Geda YE, Knopman DS, Mrazek DA, et al. Depression, apolipoprotein E genotype, and the incidence of mild cognitive impairment. Arch Neurol 2006;63:435-440.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Modrego PJ, Ferrandez J. Depression in patients with mild cognitive impairment increases the risk of developing dementia of Alzheimer type: a prospective cohort study. Arch Neurol 2004;61:1290-1293.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Lee JS, Potter GG, Wagner HR, et al. Persistent mild cognitive impairment in geriatric depression. Int Psychogeriatr 2007;19:125-135.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Berger A-K., Fratiglioni L., Forsell Y., et al. The occurrence of depressive symptoms in the preclinical phase of AD: a population based study. Neurology 1999;53:1998-2002.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Robert PH, Berr C., Volteau M., et al. Apathy in patients with mild cognitive impairment and the risk of developing dementia of Alzheimer's disease: a one-year follow-up study. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2006;108:733-736.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Forsell Y., Winblad B. Major depression in a population of demented and nondemented older people: prevalence and correlates. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998;46:27-30.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Forsell Y., Jorm AF, Fratiglioni L., et al. Application of DSM-III-R criteria for major depressive episode to elderly subjects with and without dementia. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1199-1202.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Ritchie K., Gilham C., Ledésert B., et al. Depressive illness, depressive symptomatology and regional cerebral blood flow in elderly people with sub-clinical cognitive impairment. Age and Ageing 1999;28:385-391.[CrossRef]
  • Alexopoulos GS, Young, RC, Meyers, BS Geriatric depression: age of onset and dementia. Biol Psychiatry 1993;34:141-145.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Steingart A., Herrmann N. Major depressive disorder in the elderly: the relationship between age of onset and cognitive impairment. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1991;6:593-598.[CrossRef]
  • van Reekum R., Simard M., Clarke D., et al. Late-life depression as a possible predictor of dementia: cross-sectional and short-term follow-up results. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1999;7:151-159.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Heun R., Kockler M., Ptok U. Depression in Alzheimer's disease: is there a temporal relationship between the onset of depression and the onset of dementia? Eur Psychiatry 2002; 17:254-258.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Coffey CE, Figiel GS, Djang WT, et al. White matter hyper-intensity on magnetic resonance imaging: clinical and neuroanatomic correlates in the depressed elderly. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1989;1:135-144.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Coffey CE, Figiel GS, Djang WT, et al. Leukoencephalopathy in elderly depressed patients referred for ECT. Biol Psychiatry 1988;24:143-161.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Rabins PV, Pearlson GD, Aylward E., et al. Cortical magnetic resonance imaging changes in elderly inpatients with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:617-620.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Greenwald BS, Kramer-Ginsberg E., Krishnan Krr, et al. MRI signal hyperintensities in geriatric depression. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:1212-1215.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Lawlor BA, Anderson MC The neurobiology of late-life depression: impact of silent cerebrovascular disease. Hum Psychopharmacol 1995;10:S223-S227.[CrossRef]
  • Figiel GS, Krishnan KR, Koraiswamy PM, et al. Subcortical hyperintensities on brain magnetic resonance imaging: a comparison between late age onset and early onset elderly depressed subjects. Neurbiol Aging 1991;12:245-247.
  • Coffey CE, Figiel GS, Djang WT, Weiner RD Subcortical hyper-intensity on magnetic resonance imaging: a comparison of normal and depressed elderly subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147:187-189.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Sultzer DL, Mahler ME, Cummings J., et al. Cortical abnormalities associated with subcortical lesions in vascular dementia: clinical and positron emission tomographic findings. Arch Neurol 1995;52:773-780.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Steffens DC, Helms MJ, Krishnan KR, Burke GL Cerebrovascular disease and depression symptoms in the cardiovascular health study. Stroke 1999;30:2159-2166.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Alexopoulos GS The vascular depression hypothesis: 10 years later. Biol Psychiatry 2006;60:1304-1305.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Lieberman A. Depression in Parkinson's disease: a review. Act Psychiatr Scand 2006;113:1-8.[CrossRef]
  • Weintraub D. Depression in Parkinson's disease. Prim Psychiatry 2005;12:45-49.
  • Hickie I., Scott E., Mitchell P., et al. Subcortical hyperintensities on magnetic resonance imaging: clinical correlates and prognostic significance in patients with severe depression. Biol Psychiatry 1995;37:151-160.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Jenkins M., Malloy P., Salloway S., et al. Memory processes in depressed geriatric patients with and without subcortical hyperintensities on MRI. J Neuroimaging 1998;8:20-26.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Kramer-Ginsberg E., Greenwald BS, Krishnan Krr, et al. Neuropsychological functioning and MRI signal hyperintensities in geriatric depression. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:438-444.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Baldwin RC, Walker S., Simpson SW, et al. The prognostic significance of abnormalities seen on magnetic resonance imaging in late life depression: clinical outcome, mortality and progression to dementia at three years. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000; 15:1097-1104.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Boone KB, Miller BL, Lesser IM, et al. Neuropsychological correlates of white-matter lesions in healthy elderly subjects: a threshold effect. Arch Neurol 1992;49:549-554.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Alexopoulos GS The "vascular depression" hypothesis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:915-922.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Owen AM Cognitive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: the role of frontostriatal circuitry. Neuroscientist 2004;19:525-537.
  • Elderkin-Thompson V., Mintz J., Haroon E., et al. Executive dysfunction and memory in older patients with major and minor depression. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007;22:261-270.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Newman SC The prevalence of depression in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia in a population sample. J Affect Disord 1999;52:169-176.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Breteler Mmb. Vascular risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: an epidemiologic perspective. Neurbiol Aging 2000;21:153-160.
  • Honig LS, Kukull W., Mayeux R. Atherosclerosis and AD: analysis of data from the US National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center. Neurology 2005;64:494-500.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Foster NL, Chase TN, Mansi L., et al. Cortical abnormalities in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1984;16:649-654.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Minoshima S., Giordani B., Berent S., et al. Metabolic reduction in the posterior cingulate cortex in very early Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1997;42:85-94.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Johnson JK, Head E., Kim R., et al. Clinical and pathological evidence for a frontal variant of Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1999;56:133-1239.
  • Back-Madruga C., Boone KB, Briere J., et al. Functional ability in executive variant Alzheimer's disease and typical Alzheimer's disease. Clin Neuropsychologist 2002;16:331-340.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Hatzinger M. Neuropeptides and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system: review of recent research strategies in depression. World J Biol Psychiatry 2000;1: 105-111.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Belanoff JK, Gross K., Yager A., Schatzberg AF Corticosteroids and cognition. J Psychiatric Res 2001;35:127-145.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Sapolsky RM Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:925-935.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • DeLeon MJ, Mcrae T., Ruskinek H., et al. Cortisol reduces hippocampal glucose metabolism in normal elderly, but not in Alzheimer's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82: 3251-3259.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Sapolsky R. Stress, the Aging Brain, and the Mechanisms of Neuron Death. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1992.
  • Squire LR Memory and the hippocampus: a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychol Rev 1992; 99:195-231.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • O'Brien JT, Schweitzer I., Ames D., et al. Cortisol suppression by dexamethasone in the healthy elderly: effects of age, dexamethasone levels, and cognitive function. Biol Psychiatry 1994;36:389-394.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Seeman TE, McEwen BS, Singer BH, et al. Increase in urinary cortisol excretion and memory declines: MacArthur studies of successful aging. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:2458-2465.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Lupien SJ, de Leon M., de Santi S., et al. Cortisol levels during human aging predict hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nat Neurosci 1998;1:69-73.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • DeLeon MJ, Mcrae T., Tsai J., et al. Abnormal cortisol response in Alzheimer's disease linked to hippocampal atrophy. Lancet 1988;332:391-392.
  • Oxenkrug GF, Gurevich D., Siegel B., et al. Correlation between brain-adrenal axis activation and cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease: is there a gender effect? Psychiatri Res 1989;29:169-175.[CrossRef]
  • Starkman MN, Giordani B., Berent S., et al. Elevated cortisol levels in Cushing's disease are associated with cognitive decrements. Psychosom Med 2001;63:985-993.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Rubinow D., Post RM, Savard R., Gold PW Cortisol hypersecretion and cognitive impairment in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:279-283.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Walder DJ, Walker EF, Lewine RJ Cognitive functioning, cortisol release, and symptom severity in patients with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:1121-1132.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Davis KL, Davis BM, Greenwald BS, et al. Cortisol and Alzheimer's disease: I: basal studies. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:300-305.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Umegaki H., Ikari H., Nakahata H., et al. Plasma cortisol levels in elderly female subjects with Alzheimer's disease: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Brain Res 2000;881:241-243.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Linder J., Nolgård P., Näsman B., et al. Decreased peripheral glucocorticoid sensitivity in Alzheimer's disease. Gerontology 1993;39:200-206.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Rapp MA, Schnaider-Beeri M., Grossman HT, et al. Increased hippocampal plaques and tangles in patients with Alzheimer disease with a lifetime history of major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:161-167.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Mauricio M., O'Hara R., Yesavage JA, et al. A longitudinal study of apolipoprotein-E genotype and depressive symptoms in community-dwelling older adults. Am J Psychiatry 2000;8: 196-200.[CrossRef]
  • Heun R., Kolsch H., Jessen F. Risk factors and early signs of Alzheimer's disease in a family study sample: risk of AD. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006;256:28-36.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Rigaud AS, Traykov L., Caputo L., et al. Association of the apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele with late-onset depression. Neuroepidemiology 2001;20:268-272.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Butters MA, Sweet RA, Mulsant BH, et al. ApoE is associated with age-of-onset, but not cognitive functioning, in late-life depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2003;18:1075-1081.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Steffens DC, Plassman BL, Helms MJ, et al. A twin study of late-onset depression and apolipoprotein E e4 as risk factors for Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 1997;41:851-856.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Forstl H., Burns A., Luthert P., et al. Clinical and neuropathological correlates of depression in Alzheimer's disease. Psychol Med 1992;22:887-884.
  • Zubenko GS, Moossy J. Major depression in primary dementia: clinical and neuropathologic correlates. Arch Neurol 1988;45:1182-1186.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Zweig RM, Ross CA, Hedreen JC, et al. Neuropathology of aminergic nuclei in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1988;24: 233-242.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Hoogendijk Wjg, Sommer Iec, Pool CW, et al. Lack of association between depression and loss of neurons in the locus coeruleus in Alzheimer disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56: 45-51.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Henderson AS, Korten AE, Jacomb PA, et al. The course of depression in the elderly: a longitudinal community-based study in Australia. Psychol Med 1997;27:119-129.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Dufouil C., Fuhrer R., Dartigues J-F., Alpérovitch A. Longitudinal analysis of the association between depressive symptomotology and cognitive deterioration. Am J Epidemiol 1996;144:634-641.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Buntinx F., Kester A., Bergers J., Knottnerus JA Is depression in elderly people followed by dementia: a retrospective cohort study based in general practice. Age and Ageing 1996;25: 231-233.[CrossRef]
  • Cervilla JA, Prince M., Joels S., Mann A. Does depression predict cognitive outcome 9 to 12 years later? Evidence from a prospective study of elderly hypertensives. Psychol Med 2000; 30:1017-1023.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Yaffe K., Blackwell T., Gore R., et al. Depressive symptoms and cognitive decline in nondemented elderly women: a prospective study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:425-430.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Verhey Frj, Rozendaal N, Ponds RWHM, Jolles J. Dementia, awareness and depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1993;8: 851-856.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
  • Cummings JL, Ross W., Absher J., et al. Depressive symptoms in Alzheimer disease: assessment and determinants. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1995;9:87-93.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Lupien SJ, Schwartz G., Ng YK, et al. The Douglas Hospital longitudinal study of normal and pathological aging: Summary of findings. Rev Psychiatr Neurosci 2005;30:328-334.
  • Jorm AF History of depression as a risk factor for dementia: an updated review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2001;35:776-781.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Jorm AF, van Duijn CM, Chandra V., et al. Psychiatric history and related exposures as risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: a collaborative re-analysis of case-control studies: EURODEM Risk Factors Research Group. Int J Epidemiol 1991;20:S43-S47.[Abstract]
  • Wetherell JL, Gatz M., Johansson B., Pedersen NL History of depression and other psychiatric illness as risk factors for Alzheimer disease in a twin sample. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1999;13:47-52.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Kessing LV, Olsen EW, Mortensen PB, Andersen PK Dementia in affective disorder: a case-register study. Act Psychiatr Scand 1999;100:165-166.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]

Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, Vol. 20, No. 4, 189-198 (2007)
DOI: 10.1177/0891988707308801
Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Complore Complore   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us   Add to Digg Digg   Add to Reddit Reddit   Add to Technorati Technorati   Add to Twitter Twitter    What's this?



This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Free Full Text (Free PDF) Free
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to Saved Citations
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Request Reprints
Right arrow Add to My Marked Citations
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Right arrow Citing Articles via Scopus
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Wright, S. L.
Right arrow Articles by Persad, C.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Wright, S. L.
Right arrow Articles by Persad, C.
Right arrowPubmed/NCBI databases
Medline Plus Health Information
*Alzheimer's Disease
*Dementia
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati   Add to Twitter  
What's this?

Advertisement